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Good News for Whom?
Homelessness in Australia: The 1996 and 2001 Census Results
By Cassandra Goldie
In 1996, the Australia Bureau of Statistics implemented a special enumeration strategy for the first time to collect data about homelessness in Australia. The 1996 Census: Homeless Enumeration Strategy was designed to generate appropriate data sets that would then enable researchers to report a national estimate of the number of homeless people in Australia, rates of homelessness by state and territory and a range of other aspects of homelessness and the people affected by it.
One of the reasons for the late commencement of this aspect of the Census is that there is considerable debate over who is to be defined as homeless in Australia. Without an agreement on definition, it is not possible to develop a methodology for counting that population.
In order to develop the Homelessness Enumeration Strategy, the ABS decided to use the cultural definition of homelessness that has been developed by Chris Chamberlain and David MacKenzie. Chamberlain and MacKenzie propose that homelessness and inadequate housing are concepts based on a shared understanding of community standards of minimum housing that vary according to cultural differences. Applying this approach, they define a person as homeless in Australia (in the sense of not having access to adequate housing) if, at a minimum, they do not have a small rental flat to live in with a room to sleep in, a room to live in, kitchen and bathroom facilities of their own, and an element of security of tenure. Chamberlain and Mackenzie consider this form of accommodation to be the culturally accepted minimum standard of housing in Australia.
By reference to this minimum standard, people in Australia are defined as homeless if they fall into one of three categories:
Primary homelessness
People without conventional accommodation, such as those living on the streets, sleeping in parks, squatting in derelict buildings, or using cars or railway carriages for temporary shelter
Secondary homelessness
People who move frequently from one form of temporary shelter to another. It covers: people using emergency accommodation (such as hostels for the homeless or night shelters); teenagers staying in youth refuges; women and children escaping domestic violence (staying in womens refuges); people residing temporarily with other families (because they have no accommodation of their own) and those using boarding houses on an occasional or intermittent basis
Tertiary Homelessness
People who live in boarding houses on a medium to long-term basis. Residents of private boarding houses do not have a separate bedroom and living room; they do not have kitchen and bathroom facilities of their own; their accommodation is not self-contained; and they do not have security of tenure provided by a lease.
In order to collect data during the Census that would enable people to be categorised according to these groupings, the ABS modified the Census form in two ways. The major change was inclusion of a category of no usual address as a possible response to the question about a persons usual residence address. This change would improve the identification of homeless people as it was hoped that people in the Secondary and Tertiary Homelessness categories would select this category on the form. Secondly, the ABS modified one of the dwelling structure categories. Instead of improvised home, campers out, this category became improvised home, tent, sleepers out to better refer to homeless people in the Primary Homelessness category.
In addition to changes to the Census form, the ABS improved its data collection procedures to better locate and include people who would be in the Primary Homelessness category. The ABS recognised that people in this group were more regularly completely missed from being counted during the Census (rather than not identified as homeless because of the questions asked). The modifications to data collection procedures included making contact with organisations that were involved in providing services to homeless people and seeking to involve them as collectors in the Census. Field offices were also established in areas where homeless people were more likely to be located.
The ABS 1996 Homelessness Enumeration Strategy was evaluated after the Census. The evaluation indicated that, whilst the Strategy had improved the enumeration of the number of homeless people in Australia, the figures were clearly underestimates, particularly in the Primary Homelessness category. The Evaluation developed a series of recommendations for improving the accuracy of the Census count,which were implemented during the 2001 Census.
The results of the 1996 and 2001 Censuses have been analysed and reported in two publications: Counting the Homeless: Implications for Policy Development 1996 by Chris Chamberlain, published December 1999 and Counting the Homeless 2001 by Chris Chamberlain and David MacKenzie published in November 2003.
The Number of Homeless Falls: Says New Report
It might have been anticipated that the 2001 Report would confirm widely held perceptions that homelessness in Australia is on the rise. However, Chamberlain and MacKenzie, found that, based on the 2001 Census data, the number of homeless people in Australia had fallen by 5 404 people, dropping from 105 304 in 1996 to 99 900 people over the five year period.
Table A: Number of People categorized as Homeless on Census Night in 1996 and 2001
19962001VariationBoarding Houses23 29922 877(-) 422SAAP Accommodation12 92614 251(+) 1 325Friends and Relatives48 50048 614(+) 114Improvised dwellings, tents, sleepers out20 57914 158(-) 6 421TOTAL105 30499 900(-)5 404
The 2001 Report also analysed the number of people categorised as homeless from state to state and territory.
The finding of a drop in the number of homeless people between 1996 and 2001 by widely respected researchers in the field immediately led to the Federal Minister for Family and Community Services issuing a press release titled The Number of Homeless Falls, Says New Report. The Minister declared the findings to be good news which demonstrated that the policies of the Australian government are working. Advocacy and welfare groups also noted the drop, whilst saying that it was not enough.
In fact, a closer reading of the 2001 Report does not support an assertion that government policies are working, or that there has been any improvement between 1996 and 2001 in the conditions of people in the community living in inadequate accommodation
Between 1996 and 2001, the ABS made a significant change to the definition of who is to be considered homeless in Australia. The change only applies to remote Indigenous communities.
In 1996, Census collectors in remote Indigenous communities had been instructed that, in order to be counted as a house rather than an improvised dwelling, the dwelling needed to have both a working shower and a toilet.
This appealed to the shared community standard that houses and flats are expected to have a working bathroom and toilet. If the Indigenous householder reported that this was not the case, the building was classified as an improvised dwelling. However, census field staff reported that the definition caused difficulties for census collectors. In some Indigenous communities, bathroom and toilet facilities are provided in properly constructed amenities blocks used by multiple households. This arrangement is argued to be culturally appropriate housing because it accords with the wishes of the local community.
In 2001, the guidelines for census collectors in remote communities were changed. The instructions in the Field Officers Manual (remote Indigenous communities) stated that, to be counted as a house for the census a dwelling needs to be a permanent structure built for the purpose of housing people. Householders were no longer asked whether their dwelling had a working bathroom and toilet.
In effect, the ABS changed the definition of homelessness for remote Indigenous communities between 1996 and 2001, although the 2001 Report states that it uses the same definition of homelessness as the 1996 Report.
The change in definition has had a significant impact of the number of people counted as homeless. The fall in the national homelessness estimate is attributable to the fall that occurred in the Primary Homelessness category. (The aggregated estimates of the number of people in the Secondary and Tertiary Homelessness categories of homelessness slightly increased by 1017 people.) The 2001 Report confirms that the fall in the number of people in the Primary Homelessness category is largely a result of a change in the counting rules in remote Indigenous communities discussed above. The term used is counting rules. However, as noted, this is in effect an important change in the definition of homelessness between 1996 and 2001, only applicable to Indigenous people living in remote communities.
Between 1996, and 2001, it was estimated that the number of people categorized into the improvised dwellings, tents and sleepers out category fell nationally by 6 421, from 20 579 to 14 158. However, the number of non-Indigenous people in this category rose by 1 649. The fall only occurred in the number counted amongst the Indigenous population. See Table C. Between 1996 and 2001, the number of Indigenous people in the Primary Homelessness category fell by 7 070 well in excess of the TOTAL national drop in the number of homeless people in Australia (5 404).
Table C: Indigenous Status by Enumeration in Improvised Homes, Tents and Sleepers Out.
19962001ChangeIndigenous9 7512 681- 7 070Non Indigenous9 82811 477+ 1 649
This analysis leads us to wonder how the Federal government could claim that the results of the 2001 Census were good news. How could it claim that the results demonstrated that the policies of the Australian government are working if the major and possibly only - reason for the reduction in the estimation of homelessness in Australia between 1996 and 2001 directly relates to a policy decision by the ABS to change the definition of homelessness on remote Indigenous communities?
As noted by Chamberlain & MacKenzie, the change in definition may generate some debate. The researchers do not report who argued that remote Indigenous communities should have a different cultural definition of housing by reference to access to bathroom facilities. Was the ABS responding to arguments by researchers, government authorities or Indigenous people themselves? Were there public consultations involving people living in remote Indigenous communities?
During a recent speech by the leader of one Indigenous community in Darwin, Northern Territory, the lack of access to private bathroom facilities was highlighted as an issue of major concern.
We have never had our own toilets and showers in our houses. We have to use toilet blocks like a school camp. This is very very inconvenient for the elderly and the sick and for our small kids during the night.
It would be useful to know by what process the ABS reached its decision to apply a different standard of minimum acceptable accommodation to people living in remote Indigenous communities.
One thing is clear. The change in definition appears to have lead to a significant change in the reported number of people considered homeless between 1996 and 2001. This may be good news for government. However, is it really good news for those in the community attempting to have responsible policy debates about homelessness in Australia, or for people living in remote Indigenous communities?
Senior Legal Officer, Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions Asia Pacific Program, LLB (Hons) UWA LLM (Dist) University College London, Visiting Fellow and PhD Candidate, Gilbert + Tobin Centre of Public Law, University of New South Wales.
ADDIN EN.CITE Chamberlain1999151015Chamberlain, Chris,1999Counting the Homeless: Implications for Policy Development 1996MelbourneAustralian Bureau of Statistics2 December 1999Occasional PaperABS Catalogue No 2041.0ISBNSocial PolicyChris Chamberlain, 'Counting the Homeless: Implications for Policy Development 1996' (ABS Catalogue No 2041.0, Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1999), 2: The 1996 Census was the first census to target Australias homeless population with a special enumeration strategy.
ADDIN EN.CITE Chamberlain199291091Chamberlain, ChrisMacKenzie, David1992Understanding Contemporary Homelessness: Issues of Definition and MeaningAustralian Journal of Social Issues274274NOT LOCATEDNOT READhomelessnessSocial PolicyChris Chamberlain and David MacKenzie, 'Understanding Contemporary Homelessness: Issues of Definition and Meaning' (1992) 27(4) Australian Journal of Social Issues 274.
ADDIN EN.CITE Chamberlain200196096Chamberlain, ChrisJohnson, Guy2001The Debate about HomelessnessAustralian Journal of Social Issues36135homelessnessdefinitionChris Chamberlain and Guy Johnson, 'The Debate about Homelessness' (2001) 36(1) Australian Journal of Social Issues 35, 39.
ADDIN EN.CITE Chamberlain1999151015Chamberlain, Chris,1999Counting the Homeless: Implications for Policy Development 1996MelbourneAustralian Bureau of Statistics2 December 1999Occasional PaperABS Catalogue No 2041.0ISBNSocial PolicyChris Chamberlain, 'Counting the Homeless: Implications for Policy Development 1996' (ABS Catalogue No 2041.0, Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1999),1.
ADDIN EN.CITE Northwood19977107Kristen Northwood19971996 Census: Homeless Enumeration Strategy (Evaluation of the Field Objective)Australian Bureau of Statistics59MayCensus Working Paper 91/1Social PolicyKristen Northwood, '1996 Census: Homeless Enumeration Strategy (Evaluation of the Field Objective)' (Census Working Paper 91/1, Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1997), 10.
ADDIN EN.CITE Northwood19977107Kristen Northwood19971996 Census: Homeless Enumeration Strategy (Evaluation of the Field Objective)Australian Bureau of Statistics59MayCensus Working Paper 91/1Social PolicyKristen Northwood, '1996 Census: Homeless Enumeration Strategy (Evaluation of the Field Objective)' (Census Working Paper 91/1, Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1997), 8: The motivation for this change was to adopt a terminology which was more appropriate to homeless people than the 1991 category of improvised home, campers out.
ADDIN EN.CITE Northwood19977107Kristen Northwood19971996 Census: Homeless Enumeration Strategy (Evaluation of the Field Objective)Australian Bureau of Statistics59MayCensus Working Paper 91/1Social PolicyKristen Northwood, '1996 Census: Homeless Enumeration Strategy (Evaluation of the Field Objective)' (Census Working Paper 91/1, Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1997), 8.
ADDIN EN.CITE Northwood19977107Kristen Northwood19971996 Census: Homeless Enumeration Strategy (Evaluation of the Field Objective)Australian Bureau of Statistics59MayCensus Working Paper 91/1Social PolicyKristen Northwood, '1996 Census: Homeless Enumeration Strategy (Evaluation of the Field Objective)' (Census Working Paper 91/1, Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1997).
ADDIN EN.CITE Northwood19977107Kristen Northwood19971996 Census: Homeless Enumeration Strategy (Evaluation of the Field Objective)Australian Bureau of Statistics59MayCensus Working Paper 91/1Social PolicyKristen Northwood, '1996 Census: Homeless Enumeration Strategy (Evaluation of the Field Objective)' (Census Working Paper 91/1, Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1997).
Strategic Partners Pty Ltd, Technical Forum on the Estimation of Homelessness in Australia: Final Report (2001), 15: There was discussion on the need to improve aspects of the Census process in relation to obtaining data on homelessness particularly in trying to improve the identification of people living on the streets.
Chris Chamberlain, Counting the Homeless: Implications for Policy Development (1999).
ADDIN EN.CITE Chamberlain200341510415Chamberlain, ChrisMacKenzie, David2003Counting the Homeless 2001CanberraAustralian Bureau of StatisticsABS Catalogue No 2050.0homelessnessSocial PolicyChris Chamberlain and David MacKenzie, 'Counting the Homeless 2001' (ABS Catalogue No 2050.0, Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2003), 32.
ADDIN EN.CITE Australian Bureau of Statistics200361316613Australian Bureau of Statistics,2003Media Release: Hidden Homelessness in Australia200414 July18 Novemberhttp://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/ae341f393a629479ca256de10080577d?OpenDocumentAustralian Bureau of Statistics, Media Release: Hidden Homelessness in Australia (2003) at 14 July 2004.
ADDIN EN.CITE Chamberlain200341510415Chamberlain, ChrisMacKenzie, David2003Counting the Homeless 2001CanberraAustralian Bureau of StatisticsABS Catalogue No 2050.0homelessnessSocial PolicyChris Chamberlain and David MacKenzie, 'Counting the Homeless 2001' (ABS Catalogue No 2050.0, Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2003), 32.
ADDIN EN.CITE 2003445144452003Commonwealth Department of Family and Community Services, 'The Number of Homeless Falls, Says New Report' (Press Release, 24 December 2003)FederalSocial Policyfederalhomelessnesshttp://chirs.infoxchange.net.au/news/items/00197.shtmlCommonwealth Department of Family and Community Services, 'The Number of Homeless Falls, Says New Report' (Press Release, 24 December 2003).
See for eg ADDIN EN.CITE Council to Homeless Persons200161216612Council to Homeless Persons,2001CHP Information Briefing: Counting the Homeless 2001200414 Julyhttp://www.chp.org.au/news/ABS%20Homelessness%20Figures%202001%20Information%20Briefing.docCouncil to Homeless Persons, CHP Information Briefing: Counting the Homeless 2001 (2001) at 14 July 2004.
ADDIN EN.CITE Chamberlain200341510415Chamberlain, ChrisMacKenzie, David2003Counting the Homeless 2001CanberraAustralian Bureau of StatisticsABS Catalogue No 2050.0homelessnessSocial PolicyChris Chamberlain and David MacKenzie, 'Counting the Homeless 2001' (ABS Catalogue No 2050.0, Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2003), 22.
ADDIN EN.CITE Chamberlain200341510415Chamberlain, ChrisMacKenzie, David2003Counting the Homeless 2001CanberraAustralian Bureau of StatisticsABS Catalogue No 2050.0homelessnessSocial PolicyChris Chamberlain and David MacKenzie, 'Counting the Homeless 2001' (ABS Catalogue No 2050.0, Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2003), 32: the numbers [of people categorised as homeless during the 1996 and 2001 Censuses] are similar in three categories (boarding houses, SAAP accommodation and persons staying with other households), but there was a decline of about 6,400 people in improvised dwellings, tents and sleepers out.
ADDIN EN.CITE Chamberlain200341510415Chamberlain, ChrisMacKenzie, David2003Counting the Homeless 2001CanberraAustralian Bureau of StatisticsABS Catalogue No 2050.0homelessnessSocial PolicyChris Chamberlain and David MacKenzie, 'Counting the Homeless 2001' (ABS Catalogue No 2050.0, Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2003), 3.
See ADDIN EN.CITE Chamberlain200341510415Chamberlain, ChrisMacKenzie, David2003Counting the Homeless 2001CanberraAustralian Bureau of StatisticsABS Catalogue No 2050.0homelessnessSocial PolicyChris Chamberlain and David MacKenzie, 'Counting the Homeless 2001' (ABS Catalogue No 2050.0, Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2003), 22: Table 3.1.
ADDIN EN.CITE Chamberlain200341510415Chamberlain, ChrisMacKenzie, David2003Counting the Homeless 2001CanberraAustralian Bureau of StatisticsABS Catalogue No 2050.0homelessnessSocial PolicyChris Chamberlain and David MacKenzie, 'Counting the Homeless 2001' (ABS Catalogue No 2050.0, Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2003), 22.
ADDIN EN.CITE David Timber20046143614David Timber,2004Chairperson SpeechLaunch of Kumbutjil AssociationDarwin, Northern Territory28 AprilDavid Timber, 'Chairperson Speech' (Paper presented at the Launch of Kumbutjil Association, Darwin, Northern Territory, 28 April 2004).
Parity Article 2004 Census Data Draft Not to be Cited
14 July 2004
C Goldie
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